Triwahyuningsih Triwahyuningsih (1), Islahuddin (2), Deslaely Putranti (3)
A unitary state centralizes supreme authority within the national government; however, accommodating regional diversity without undermining national unity remains a persistent constitutional challenge. Indonesia’s Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta and Thailand’s Pattani region illustrate contrasting approaches to the management of asymmetric decentralization within unitary state frameworks. This study compares the constitutional design of asymmetric decentralization in Yogyakarta and Pattani and examines how each state applies the unitary principle in responding to autonomy claims grounded in local identity. The research employs a comparative qualitative method through normative analysis of constitutional provisions and statutory regulations, supported by interviews with relevant stakeholders. The findings demonstrate, first, that the Thai constitutional and statutory framework does not expressly recognize asymmetric decentralization for Pattani and that the central government grants it no special governmental authority distinct from other provinces. Differentiation is confined to religious, linguistic, and educational regulation. Second, the Indonesian constitutional system explicitly grants Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta a special legal status that confers extensive autonomous authority based on historical legitimacy and cultural identity. Third, Thailand applies the unitary state principle through a rigid and centralized governance model, whereas Indonesia operationalizes it through an approach in managing diversity.
Afandi, Ahmad and Udiyo Basuki, ‘Menemukan Konsep Ideal Hubungan Pusat Dan Daerah Dalam Bingkai Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia’, Jurnal Hukum Caraka Justitia, 3 (2023), 1 https://doi.org/10.30588/jhcj.v3i1.1489
Ahmed, Mohamed Yusuf, Abdulkadir Mohamed Abdullahi, Hassan Abdikadir Hussein and Ali Yusuf Hassan, ‘Empowering Communities: Assessing the Impact of Decentralisation on Citizen Participation in Formal Organisations within Somalia’s Evolving Governance Landscape’, Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 12 (2025), 102147 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.102147
Allo, Hanfree Bunga’, Aminuddin Ilmar, Aminuddin Ilmar and Abdul Razak, ‘Asymmetric Decentralisation Arrangements in the Implementation of Regional Autonomy in Indonesia’, Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology, 9 (2025), 1975–84 https://doi.org/10.55214/25768484.v9i4.6442
An, Jin, Guiqian He, Han Li and Jiming Fang, ‘The Impact of Fiscal Decentralization on Corporate Carbon Emissions in the Yellow River Basin’, International Review of Financial Analysis, 108 (2025), 104683 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irfa.2025.104683
Anantanatorn, Anurat, Ali Maskur and Noppawan Phuengpha, ‘Decentralization and Local Governance in Southeast Asia: A Comparative Analysis of Thailand and Indonesia’, in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Public Administration and Governance, ICOPAG 2024, 30 October 2024, Malang, Indonesia (EAI, 2025) https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.30-10-2024.2354740
Angela, Deni and Harsanto Nursadi, ‘Implementation of Asymmetrical Decentralization In Papua: Relevance to Demands and Problems’, Fiat Justisia: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum, 18 (2025), 373–406 https://doi.org/10.25041/fiatjustisia.v18no4.3474
Arismunandar, Arismunandar, Afriantoni Afriantoni and Asmuni Asmuni, ‘MELAYU PATTANI THAILAND: MUSLIM MINORITY RELIGION EXPRESSION IN THE MIDDLE OF NON MUSLIM MAJORITY’, Journal of Malay Islamic Studies, 3 (2019), 63–74 https://doi.org/10.19109/jmis.v3i1.4576
Arroyave, Lina Ortiz, Rita Lopes and Rui Santos, ‘Leveraging Local Environmental Management in the Scope of an Administrative Decentralization Process: The Case of Portuguese Coastal Municipalities’, Journal of Environmental Management, 394 (2025), 127052 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.127052
Asmorojati, Anom Wahyu, Suyadi Suyadi and King Faisal Sulaiman, ‘Asymmetric Decentralization in A Unitary State: The Legitimization of The Sultan’s Daughter as The Governor of the Special Region of Yogyakarta’, Jurnal Hukum Novelty, 13 (2022), 171 https://doi.org/10.26555/novelty.v13i2.a24079
Barras, Camille, ‘Does Decentralization Boost Electoral Participation? Revisiting the Question in a Non-Western Context’, Electoral Studies, 92 (2024), 102873 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2024.102873
Bashiroh, Saifiyatil, Ahmad Khumaidi and Ummi Lailia Maghfiroh, ‘MODERASI PENDIDIKAN ISLAM STUDI KASUS BUMRUNG SUKSA ISLAMIC SCHOOL DI THAILAND SELATAN’, Jurnal Visi Ilmu Pendidikan, 16 (2024), 244 https://doi.org/10.26418/jvip.v16i2.78142
Busygina, Irina, Mikhail Filippov and Elmira Taukebaeva, ‘To Decentralize or to Continue on the Centralization Track: The Cases of Authoritarian Regimes in Russia and Kazakhstan’, Journal of Eurasian Studies, 9 (2018), 61–71 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euras.2017.12.008
Castillo León, Jaime and Alfred Lehar, ‘What Data Have Told Us about Decentralized Finance’, Journal of Corporate Finance, 96 (2026), 102916 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2025.102916
Cerniglia, Floriana, Riccarda Longaretti and Alberto Zanardi, ‘How to Design Decentralisation to Curb Secessionist Pressures? Top-down vs. Bottom-up Reforms’, Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 58 (2021), 377–90 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2021.06.010
Chinasaokwu Okorieimoh, Chibuisi and Ehiaze Augustin Ehimen, ‘Policy and Regulatory Challenges in Decentralised Renewable Energy Deployment: Case Studies from Nigeria, Liberia, and Malawi’, Utilities Policy, 98 (2026), 102075 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jup.2025.102075
Choudhury, Atrayee and Sohini Sahu, ‘The Asymmetric Impact of Fiscal Decentralization on Ecological Footprint-Accounting for Methodological Refinements and Globalization Facets’, The Journal of Economic Asymmetries, 31 (2025), e00400 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeca.2024.e00400
Duran-Romero, Daniela and Karina Barquet, ‘Business Models for Decentralized Water Services in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas’, Cleaner Water, 4 (2025), 100138 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clwat.2025.100138
Febriandiela, Fifi, Aldri Frinaldi and Lince Magriasti, ‘Critical Analysis of Decentralization Theory in the Context of Local Government: A Literature Review’, Adabi : Journal of Public Administration and Business, 11 (2024), 1–13 https://doi.org/10.62066/jpab.v11i1.13
Feinberg, Robert and Nathan Larson, ‘Multi-Market Contact, Tacit Collusion, and Decentralized Managerial Decision-Making’, International Journal of Industrial Organization, 97 (2024), 103100 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijindorg.2024.103100
Fiorillo, Fabio, Michele G Giuranno and Agnese Sacchi, ‘Asymmetric Decentralization: Distortions and Opportunities’, Economia Politica, 38 (2021), 625–56 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40888-020-00211-7
Hayat, Moez and Ryan Ashley, ‘Making the “Network Monarchy” Work in Thailand’s Deep South A Deeper View of Thailand’s Southern Insurgency Reveals More about the Nature of a Nation Facing New Challenges from a Vocal, Youthful Generation’, The Diplomat,’ The Diplomat, 2021 https://thediplomat.com/2021/08/making-the-network-monarchy-work-in-thailands-deep-south/
Hendrarso, Panji, Nina Kurnia, Ahmad Subhan, Mutia Rizky Septiani, Gugun Gunawan, Arif Nugroho, and others, ‘Decentralization in a Unitary State: A Comparative Analysis and Adaptive Governance Design Based on Performance-Panji Hendrarso et.Al Decentralization in a Unitary State: A Comparative Analysis and Adaptive Governance Design Based on Performance’, Jurnal Multidisiplin Sahombu, 5 (2025) https://doi.org/10.58471/jms.v5i05
Henn, Soeren J, Aimable Lameke, Mastaki Mugaruka and Vincent Tanutama, ‘Urbanization and Decentralization in the Congo: Examining Governance in Rural Towns’, World Development, 199 (2026), 107219 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2025.107219
Indra, Mexsasai and Fadhillah Fauzan, ‘The Importance Of Structuring Relationships Between Local Governments And Business Entities In The Perspective Of State Administrative Law In Batam City, Riau Islands’, Jurnal IUS Kajian Hukum Dan Keadilan, 11 (2023), 126–39 https://doi.org/10.29303/ius.v11i1.1146
Irianto, Bambang Sugeng, ‘REGIONAL GOVERNMENT PROBLEMATICS’, EQUALEGUM International Law Journal, 2023, 148–54 https://doi.org/10.61543/equ.v1i3.28
Isra, Saldi, Bertus de Villiers, Zainal Arifin and University Gadjah Mada, Asymmetry in a Decentralized, Unitary State: Lessons from the Special Regions of Indonesia, Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe, 2019, XVIII http://www.ecmi.de/fileadmin/downloads/publications/JEMIE/2019
Khairul Muluk, MR and Anurat Anantanatorn, ‘Comparing Symmetric-Asymmetric Decentralization for Reducing Regional Tension: Indonesia and Thailand Experience’, Policy & Governance Review, 7 (2023), 154 https://doi.org/10.30589/pgr.v7i2.731
Kurniawan, DE Tiopan &, ‘The Suitable Concept of the Relationship of Authority between the Center and the Regions for the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia According to the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia’, International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 05 (2022) https://doi.org/10.47191/ijsshr/v5-i7-22
Kusuma, Rizky Dwi, Anwar Fauzi, Saepudin Saepudin and Azis Reza Randisa, ‘Problems and Challenges of Asymmetrical Democracy in Indonesia’, Kybernology : Journal of Government Studies, 3 (2023), 17–33 https://doi.org/10.26618/kjgs.v3i1.12059
Matevosyan, Anna V, Andreas Neef and Dau-Jye Lu, ‘Resistance to Decentralised Natural Resource Governance: Taiwan’s Chiku Wildlife Refuge’, Environmental Development, 51 (2024), 101018 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2024.101018
Medeiros, Mike and Jean-Philippe Gauvin, ‘Two Regionalisms, One Mechanism: How Identity Shapes Support for Decentralisation’, Comparative European Politics, 19 (2021), 208–24 https://doi.org/10.1057/s41295-020-00233-2
Munger, Frank W, ‘Thailand’s Monarchy and Constitutional History - Constitutional Bricolage: Thailand’s Sacred Monarchy vs. the Rule of Law. By Eugenie Mérieau. London: Hart Publishing, 2021, 328 Pp. Hardcover $90.00’, Asian Journal of Law and Society, 9 (2022), 460–62 https://doi.org/10.1017/als.2022.27
Nugroho, Asianto, I Gusti Ayu Ketut Rachmi Handayani and Lego Karjoko, ‘Recognition of the Specialties of the Kingdom of Yogyakarta and the Practice of Asymmetric Decentralization in Indonesia’, Journal of Law and Sustainable Development, 12 (2024) https://doi.org/10.55908/sdgs.v12i1.3122
O. V., Batanov, ‘The Doctrine of Modern Unitarism: Problems of Formation and Realization’, Alʹmanah Prava, 11 (2020), 33–42 https://doi.org/10.33663/2524-017X-2020-11-6
Proverbio, Daniele, ‘Chemotaxis in Heterogeneous Environments: A Multi-Agent Model of Decentralized Gathering Past Obstacles’, Journal of Theoretical Biology, 586 (2024), 111820 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2024.111820
Rabinovych, Maryna and Hanna Shelest, ‘Introduction: Regional Diversity, Decentralization, and Conflict in and around Ukraine’, in Decentralization, Regional Diversity, and Conflict (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020), pp. 1–14 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41765-9_1
Sareen, Siddharth, Per Ove Eikeland and Tor Håkon Jackson Inderberg, ‘Ten Questions Concerning Decentralised Energy Systems Governance’, Building and Environment, 286 (2025), 113717 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.113717
Setiawan, Fauzi D, ‘Spiritual Politics: The Role of Sultan in Yogyakarta’s Autonomy System’, J. Southeast Asian Stud,’ J. Southeast Asian Stud, 24 (2021), 141–56 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003318170
Shair-Rosenfield, Sarah, ‘Decentralization and Subnational Politics in Asia’, in Handbook on Decentralization, Devolution and the State (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2021) https://doi.org/10.4337/9781839103285.00015
Suciyani, Suciyani and Faisol Mamaeng, ‘Exploring Maqāṣid Al-Sharīʿah in the OIC’s Role in Addressing Muslim Minority Conflicts: A Case Study of Pattani, Thailand’, Al-Ahkam: Jurnal Ilmu Syari’ah Dan Hukum, 9 (2024), 14–28 https://doi.org/10.22515/alahkam.v9i1.8141
Sung, Ming-Hsi and Hary Abdul Hakim, ‘Unitary, Federalized, or Decentralized?: The Case Study of Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta as the Special Autonomous Regions in Indonesia’, Indonesian Comparative Law Review, 1 (2019) https://doi.org/10.18196/iclr.1210
Supranoto, Lulut Sasmito, Suyani Indriastuti, Hadi Prayitno and Mohammad Sawir, ‘From Parallel to Partnership Governance: Strengthening Institutional Synergy for Stunting Reduction in Decentralized Indonesia’, Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 12 (2025), 102051 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.102051
Triwahyuningsih, Indah Nur Santy Saleh, ‘Rekognisi Sistem Pemerintahan Daerah Di Indonesia Perspektif Konstitusional’, 6 (2023) https://doi.org/10.31933/unesrev.v6i1
Triwahyuningsih, Triwahyuningsih, ‘The Reviewing Concept of Asymmetric Decentralization in The Special Region of Yogyakarta’, Jurnal Daulat Hukum, 4 (2021), 189 https://doi.org/10.30659/jdh.v4i3.17525
Vattamparambil, Kiran Prakash and Suhita Chopra Chatterjee, ‘Decentralized Governance and Pandemic Management in Thrissur District of Kerala, India’, International Journal of Health Governance, 30 (2024), 136–56 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHG-11-2024-0144
Watanabe, Y and J Honna, ‘The Politics of Autonomy and Identity in Southern Thailand: Pattani and Beyond’, Asian J. Comp. Polit, 15 (2019), 123–39 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021911813000065
Wekke, Ismail Suardi, Siddin Siddin and Sukree Langputeh, ‘Islamic Education in Thailand Pattani Muslim Minority: What Are the Institutional Continuity and Change?’, Tadris: Jurnal Keguruan Dan Ilmu Tarbiyah, 4 (2019), 127–34 https://doi.org/10.24042/tadris.v4i1.3753
Yousfi, Hèla, ‘Reshaping State/Local Communities Relations in Tunisia: The Socio-Cultural and Institutional Challenges of the Decentralization Project’, European Management Journal, 37 (2019), 625–36 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2019.05.002
Yu, Lin, Junlin Xiong and Min Xie, ‘Off-Policy Reinforcement Learning-Based Decentralized Stabilization for Interconnected Nonlinear Systems’, Information Sciences, 728 (2026), 122817 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ins.2025.122817
Yusuf, Imtiyaz, ‘Muslims as Thailand’s Largest Religious Minority’, in Routledge Handbook of Islam in Southeast Asia (London: Routledge, 2022), pp. 234–49 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429275449-16
Zahrin, Zuriana and Ahmad Martadha Mohamed, ‘REVISING THE UNITARY VS. FEDERAL CLASSIFICATION’, Journal of International Studies, 18 (2022) https://doi.org/10.32890/jis2022.18.5
Zarychta, Alan, Bertha Bermudez Tapia, Elisabeth Dowling Root, Dominic Freake, Tara Grillos, Krister Andersson, and others, ‘Decentralization and Equitable Service Delivery: Access and Satisfaction under Health Sector Governance Reform’, Social Science & Medicine, 388 (2026), 118750 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118750
Zhao, Yangyang and Jiajun Qiu, ‘Decentralized Governance in Action: A Governance Framework of Digital Responsibility in Startups’, Journal of Responsible Technology, 21 (2025), 100107 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrt.2025.100107
Zhong, Jingbo, Chunbin Qin, Yinliang Wu, Dehua Zhang, Tianzeng Zhu and Kaijun Jiang, ‘Decentralized Event-Triggered Reinforcement Learning Control for Partially Unknown Nonlinear Systems with Time-Varying States and Asymmetric Input Constraints’, Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation, 149 (2025), 108937 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnsns.2025.108937
Ziegenhain, Patrick, ‘Subnational Autonomy and Political Islam: A Comparative Analysis of Aceh, Bangsamoro, and Patani’, JURNAL INDO-ISLAMIKA, 15 (2025), 65–76 https://doi.org/10.15408/jii.v15i1.47973